Search:
(clear)
  • The Client to Authenticator Protocol (CTAP) is a standardized protocol developed by the FIDO Alliance that enables secure communication between a client device (such as a browser, operating system, or application) and an external authenticator (like a hardware security key, smartphone, or biometric device) over channels such as USB, NFC, or Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). CTAP is a core component of the FIDO2 project, working alongside the Web Authentication (WebAuthn) standard from the W3C. While WebAuthn defines how web applications interact with browsers for authentication, CTAP specifies how the browser or platform communicates with the authenticator itself. CTAP Versions CTAP1 (formerly known as FIDO U2F): Supports second-factor authentication using devices like security keys, primarily for two-factor authentication (2FA). CTAP2: Extends capabilities to enable passwordless, second-factor, or multi-factor authentication, supporting features like resident keys and biometrics. How CTAP Works The client (browser, OS, or app) establishes a connection with the authenticator (e.g., security key or smartphone). The client queries the authenticator for its capabilities. The client sends authentication or registration commands to the authenticator. The authenticator processes the request and responds with the appropriate data or an error message.
  • Cloud Security Posture Management (CSPM) is a category of security tools and practices designed to continuously monitor, identify, and remediate security risks and misconfigurations within cloud environments. CSPM solutions are crucial for organizations leveraging cloud infrastructure—whether public, private, hybrid, or multi-cloud—to maintain a strong security posture and ensure compliance with industry standards and regulations. Key Functions of CSPM • Automated Misconfiguration Detection and Remediation: CSPM tools automatically scan cloud resources for misconfigurations—such as open storage buckets, insecure network settings, or overly permissive access controls—and can remediate these issues, often in real time.• Continuous Monitoring: CSPM provides ongoing visibility into cloud assets and their configurations, alerting security teams to deviations from best practices or compliance requirements.• Compliance Assurance: By mapping cloud configurations to regulatory frameworks (e.g., HIPAA, ISO 27001, NIST), CSPM tools help organizations maintain continuous compliance and generate audit-ready reports.• Risk Assessment and Visualization: CSPM solutions assess the risk associated with current cloud configurations, prioritize remediation actions, and offer visualization tools to help teams understand their security posture.• Integration with DevOps: Many CSPM tools integrate with DevOps workflows, embedding security checks into CI/CD pipelines and enabling a DevSecOps approach. Why CSPM Is Important Cloud environments are inherently dynamic and complex, often spanning multiple providers and services (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS). This complexity increases the risk of human error and misconfiguration, which are leading causes of cloud data breaches—Gartner estimates that up to 95% of cloud security incidents are due to misconfiguration. CSPM addresses these challenges by providing: • Proactive risk detection and mitigation• Automated compliance monitoring• Centralized visibility across hybrid and multi-cloud environments• Reduced likelihood of costly data breaches and regulatory violations How CSPM Works CSPM tools typically connect to cloud service provider APIs to collect configuration and activity data. They continuously evaluate this data against best practices, compliance standards, and organizational policies. When an issue is detected,(...)
  • Cobalt Strike is a commercial penetration testing and adversary simulation tool designed for security professionals to assess network and system security by emulating the tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) of advanced threat actors. Originally created in 2012 by Raphael Mudge and now part of Fortra’s cybersecurity portfolio, Cobalt Strike is widely used by red teams and security consultants to simulate real-world cyberattacks and help organizations identify and remediate vulnerabilities before malicious actors can exploit them. Key Features and Components • Beacon Payload: The core of Cobalt Strike is its Beacon payload, a lightweight backdoor that establishes a covert command and control (C2) channel between the operator and the compromised system. Beacon is highly configurable, supporting various communication methods (HTTP, HTTPS, DNS, etc.) and designed for stealth and flexibility.• Team Server and Client: Cobalt Strike’s architecture includes a team server (the C2 server, typically run on Linux) and a client (the operator interface, available for Windows, macOS, or Linux). The team server manages connections from both clients and beacons.• Covert Communication: Cobalt Strike employs techniques such as domain fronting and DNS tunneling to evade detection and maintain persistence within compromised environments.• Post-Exploitation Tools: The toolkit supports the full attack lifecycle, including exploitation, privilege escalation, lateral movement, and data exfiltration.• Malleable C2: Operators can customize network indicators to mimic different types of malware, making detection and attribution more difficult. Legitimate and Malicious Uses • Legitimate Use: Cobalt Strike is primarily intended for red teaming and penetration testing, allowing security professionals to simulate sophisticated attacks and test an organization’s defenses, incident response, and detection capabilities.• Malicious Use: Despite its legitimate purpose, Cobalt Strike is frequently abused by cybercriminals and advanced persistent threat (APT) groups, who use cracked or stolen copies to conduct real attacks, including ransomware campaigns and targeted intrusions.
  • Cold DR (Disaster Recovery) refers to a type of disaster recovery site or strategy that provides only the most basic infrastructure, with minimal or no pre-installed hardware, software, or data. A Cold DR Site typically includes only essential utilities such as power, cooling, and network connectivity. There is little to no IT hardware or software pre-installed. Organizations must bring in their own hardware, install operating systems and applications, and restore data from backups after a disaster occurs. Because everything must be set up from scratch, it can take days to become fully operational. This makes cold sites unsuitable for mission-critical workloads where downtime must be minimized. Cold sites are the most affordable disaster recovery option, as they do not require ongoing investment in duplicate hardware, software, or real-time data replication.
  • A Command and Control (C&C or C2) server is a computer controlled by an attacker or cybercriminal, used to send commands to systems compromised by malware and to receive stolen data from a target network. These servers act as the central hub for orchestrating malicious activities such as data theft, malware deployment, and network disruption. C&C servers are essential in cyberattacks, especially within botnets—networks of infected devices—where they manage and coordinate the actions of compromised machines. Attackers use C&C servers to issue directives like stealing sensitive information, spreading additional malware, or launching distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks. To avoid detection, attackers often use legitimate cloud services or employ techniques like domain fluxing and encryption to blend C&C communications with normal network traffic. The architecture of C&C infrastructure can vary, with centralized, peer-to-peer (P2P), and random models being the most common.
  • CRS is a type of checksum algorithm that is not a cryptographic hash but is used to implement data integrity service where accidental changes to data are expected.
  • Credential hygiene refers to the set of best practices and processes used to manage and protect authentication mechanisms—such as passwords, tokens, keys, and certificates—that control access to systems and resources. Good credential hygiene is essential for maintaining robust cybersecurity, as weak or poorly managed credentials are a leading cause of security breaches and identity-based attacks. Key Components of Credential Hygiene • Secure Credential Storage: Store credentials using encryption and secure secret management solutions to prevent unauthorized access.• Credential Rotation: Regularly change passwords, keys, and tokens to minimize the risk window if a credential is compromised.• Least-Privilege Access: Grant only the minimum necessary permissions to users and systems, reducing the potential impact of a breach.• Audit Logging and Monitoring: Continuously audit and monitor credential usage to detect suspicious activity and ensure compliance with security policies.• Strong, Unique Credentials: Use strong, unique passwords or passphrases for every account, and avoid reusing credentials across systems.• Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Implement MFA to add an extra layer of security beyond just a password.• User Education: Train users on best practices for credential management and the risks of poor credential hygiene. Risks of Poor Credential Hygiene Poor credential hygiene can lead to:• Unauthorized access to sensitive systems and data.• Data breaches, operational disruptions, and reputational damage.• Regulatory fines and compliance issues.• Attackers using compromised credentials to escalate privileges or move laterally within a network.
  • Credentials are pieces of information or digital artifacts used to verify the identity of a user, device, or system and to grant access to resources, applications, or data. They function as the digital equivalent of a passport or key, enabling secure authentication and authorization processes. Common types of credentials include: Usernames and passwords: The most familiar form, used to identify and authenticate users. Security tokens: Physical or virtual devices that generate codes for authentication, such as one-time passwords (OTPs). Biometric data: Unique physical characteristics like fingerprints or facial recognition used for identity verification. Smart cards: Physical cards embedded with chips for secure authentication. API keys and access tokens: Used by applications and services to authenticate and authorize automated processes or integrations. Digital certificates: Electronic documents that verify the identity of users, devices, or servers, often used in encrypted communications. Cryptographic keys: Used for encryption, decryption, and digital signatures to ensure data confidentiality and authenticity. Purpose and Importance: Authentication: Credentials prove that an entity is who it claims to be. Authorization: Once authenticated, credentials help determine what actions or data the entity can access. Accountability: They allow organizations to track user actions for auditing and compliance purposes. Access control: Credentials restrict access to sensitive resources, helping to prevent unauthorized access and data breaches.
  • Cron is a time-based job scheduler found in Unix and Unix-like operating systems. It automates the execution of tasks (called “cron jobs”) by running commands, scripts, or programs at specified times, dates, or intervals without user intervention.
  • A CVSS score, or Common Vulnerability Scoring System score, is a standardized numerical value (ranging from 0 to 10) used to assess and communicate the severity of security vulnerabilities in software and systems. The higher the score, the more severe the vulnerability, helping organizations prioritize which issues to address first. How CVSS Scores Work CVSS provides a consistent way to evaluate vulnerabilities across different platforms and vendors. It does this by considering several factors, grouped into metrics, to generate a score: Base Metrics: Measure the inherent qualities of a vulnerability (e.g., how easy it is to exploit, what privileges are required, whether user interaction is needed, and the potential impact on confidentiality, integrity, and availability). Temporal Metrics: Adjust the score based on factors that can change over time, such as the availability of patches or exploit code. Environmental Metrics: Allow organizations to tailor the score to their specific environment, reflecting how the vulnerability could affect their unique systems and business context. CVSS Score Ranges and Severity Levels CVSS ScoreSeverity Level0.0None0.1–3.9Low4.0–6.9Medium7.0–8.9High9.0–10.0Critical What Factors Influence the Score? Key elements that affect a CVSS score include: Attack Vector: How the vulnerability can be exploited (e.g., over a network vs. physical access). Attack Complexity: How difficult it is to exploit the vulnerability. Privileges Required: The level of access an attacker needs before exploiting the vulnerability. User Interaction: Whether a user must participate for the exploit to succeed. Scope: Whether the vulnerability can affect components beyond its initial target. Impact on Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability: The potential damage to data and systems if exploited. Limitations A CVSS score measures severity, not risk. It does not account for how likely a vulnerability is to be exploited in the wild or the specific context of an organization’s IT environment. Also, scores may not be updated quickly as new information emerges, and not all vulnerabilities are immediately scored
  • CyberAv3ngers is an Iranian state-backed cybercriminal group affiliated with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), specifically its Cyber-Electronic Command (IRGC-CEC). The group is also sometimes referred to as CyberAveng3rs or Cyber Avengers. It has become one of Iran’s most active hacking collectives focused on industrial control systems (ICS), targeting critical infrastructure sectors such as water, wastewater, oil and gas, energy, and manufacturing—primarily in the United States and Israel, but also in other countries. Origins and Affiliation • State Sponsorship: CyberAv3ngers is directly linked to the IRGC, a branch of Iran’s military apparatus, and operates as a state-sponsored hacktivist group.• Leadership: The group is reportedly led or overseen by senior IRGC-CEC officials, including Mahdi Lashgarian.• Connections: CyberAv3ngers has reported ties to other IRGC-linked groups, such as Soldiers of Solomon. Tactics and Modus Operandi • Primary Targets: The group is best known for attacking programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and SCADA systems—especially those manufactured by Israeli company Unitronics, which are widely used in water, energy, and other critical sectors. Attack Methods • Exploiting internet-facing devices with default or no passwords.• Defacing compromised PLCs with anti-Israel messages, such as “You have been hacked, down with Israel. Every equipment ‘made in Israel’ is CyberAv3ngers legal target”.• Publicizing attacks and sometimes exaggerating their impact through Telegram and other social media channels.• Development and use of custom malware, such as IOControl, to infiltrate ICS and IoT devices. Notable Incidents • November 2023: Compromised PLCs at U.S. water utilities, including the Municipal Water Authority of Aliquippa, leading to public warnings and advisories.• Multiple claims (some later disproven) of attacks on Israeli infrastructure, including water treatment facilities, railway systems, and electricity grids.
  • CISA most commonly refers to the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, a federal agency within the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Its core mission is to protect the nation’s critical infrastructure—including cyber, physical, and communications systems—against a wide range of threats, both cyber and physical. Key facts about CISA CISA was created in November 2018 through the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency Act, elevating the former National Protection and Programs Directorate within DHS to agency status. CISA leads national efforts to understand, manage, and reduce risk to the cyber and physical infrastructure that Americans rely on every day. Core responsibilities CISA coordinates cybersecurity programs and incident responses across federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial governments, as well as with private sector partners. The agency safeguards essential sectors such as energy, transportation, healthcare, and finance from both cyber and physical threats. CISA ensures interoperable communications for emergency responders and leads efforts to secure national elections. CISA provides risk assessments, technical assistance, training, and resources to help organizations strengthen their security and resilience. CISA works closely with public and private sector partners, as well as international entities, to share information, develop best practices, and respond to emerging threats. As of 2025, CISA is headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, but plans to relocate to the DHS St. Elizabeths campus.
  • A Daemon is a program which is often started at the time the system boots and runs continuously without intervention from any of the users on the system. The daemon program forwards the requests to other programs (or processes) as appropriate. The term daemon is a Unix term, though many other operating systems provide support for daemons, though they're sometimes called other names. Windows, for example, refers to daemons and System Agents and services.
  • DanaBot is a sophisticated, modular malware family first identified in May 2018. It began as a banking trojan but evolved into a versatile malware-as-a-service (MaaS) platform, enabling a range of cybercriminal activities including information theft, wire fraud, cryptocurrency theft, and acting as a loader for other malware families. Key Features and Capabilities• DanaBot consists of three main components: a loader, a main module, and a set of attacker-specified modules. This modularity allows attackers to tailor the malware for specific campaigns, enabling functions such as credential theft, remote access, keylogging, screenshot capture, and system reconnaissance. Stealth and Persistence• The malware employs advanced obfuscation techniques, including junk code, encryption (AES and RSA), Windows API hashing, and multiple layers of communication encryption, making analysis and detection challenging.• It establishes persistence through hidden files, new service creation, and DLL hijacking, particularly exploiting the Windows Update Standalone Installer (wusa.exe).
  • A dangling commit in Git is a commit object that exists in the repository but is not referenced by any branch, tag, or other reference. In other words, it is a commit that is not reachable from any named pointer in your repository's history. Dangling commits can be created in several ways, such as: Deleting a branch without merging its changes. Force-pushing changes that overwrite existing commits. Amending a commit (e.g., using git commit --amend), which creates a new commit and leaves the old one unreferenced. Rebasing or other history-rewriting operations that remove references to old commits. Although these commits are not part of any active branch or tag, they still exist in the repository until Git's garbage collection process eventually deletes them. If you know the commit's SHA-1 hash, you can still access or recover it using commands like git checkout  or by creating a new branch from it. You can list dangling commits using: git fsck --lost-found This will show all unreachable commits and objects in your repository.
  • Dark fiber refers to unused or unlit optical fiber cables that have been installed underground or underwater for telecommunications purposes but are not currently in use. The term “dark” signifies that these fibers are not transmitting data—no light signals are passing through them, hence they are “dark”. Dark fiber is typically leased by organizations from network service providers or telecommunications companies. Unlike traditional “lit” fiber services, where the provider manages the equipment and services, dark fiber allows the customer to install and manage their own networking equipment at both ends of the fiber. This gives the customer full control over the network’s configuration, security, and bandwidth, as well as the flexibility to scale and upgrade as needed. Key points about dark fiber • Control and Flexibility: Organizations can choose their own protocols, equipment, and network architecture, making dark fiber ideal for businesses with high bandwidth needs or strict security requirements.• Scalability: There is virtually no limit to the bandwidth that can be achieved, as capacity can be upgraded by changing the equipment at the endpoints.• Security: Since the fiber is dedicated and not shared with others, it offers enhanced privacy and security for sensitive data.• Cost and Responsibility: While dark fiber can be cost-effective in the long run due to fixed leasing costs and scalability, it requires a significant upfront investment in networking equipment and ongoing maintenance by the customer. Dark fiber is commonly used by large enterprises, data centers, research institutions, and service providers who require high-speed, reliable, and secure connectivity between multiple locations.
  • Data Security Posture Management (DSPM) is a cybersecurity framework and set of technologies designed to identify, assess, and manage the security of sensitive data across an organization’s environments—whether in the cloud, on-premises, or hybrid systems. Key Functions of DSPM • Discovery and Classification: Automatically finds and categorizes sensitive data across all data stores, including cloud services, SaaS platforms, and on-premises environments.• Visibility: Reveals where sensitive data resides, who can access it, how it is used, and the current security posture of each data store or application.• Risk Assessment: Evaluates vulnerabilities by analyzing access controls, user privileges, and data sensitivity to prioritize remediation.• Continuous Monitoring: Provides ongoing surveillance of data activity, detecting and responding to threats or misconfigurations in real time.• Compliance Automation: Helps organizations meet regulatory requirements (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA) by automating compliance checks and generating audit-ready reports.• Remediation and Policy Enforcement: Guides or automates the fixing of security issues at their source and enforces security policies to prevent future incidents. Why is DSPM Important? • Prevents data breaches and reduces threat risks by proactively identifying and mitigating vulnerabilities.• Addresses the challenges of data sprawl in modern, cloud-centric, and hybrid environments.• Supports compliance with data privacy and security regulations, reducing the risk of costly violations.• Builds trust with customers and stakeholders by demonstrating a strong, proactive approach to data protection.
  • A DDoS attack—short for distributed denial-of-service attack—is a malicious attempt to disrupt the normal traffic of a targeted server, service, or network by overwhelming it with a flood of internet traffic from multiple sources. Unlike a standard DoS (denial-of-service) attack, which typically originates from a single source, a DDoS attack is distributed, meaning it uses a network of compromised computers or devices (often called a botnet) to generate the malicious traffic. During a DDoS attack, the target is bombarded with so many requests that it becomes unable to respond to legitimate users, causing service disruption or complete unavailability. The devices used in these attacks—such as computers, servers, and IoT devices—are often infected with malware and controlled remotely without their owners’ knowledge. DDoS attacks can have severe consequences, including financial losses, reputational damage, and operational disruption for businesses and organizations. They are on the rise and require robust mitigation strategies to defend against.
  • DeepSeek is a Chinese artificial intelligence company specializing in the development of large language models (LLMs) and advanced AI-powered information retrieval and reasoning platforms. Founded in 2023 by Liang Wenfeng, a graduate of Zhejiang University and co-founder of the quantitative hedge fund High-Flyer, DeepSeek is headquartered in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. The company made global headlines in early 2025 with the release of its DeepSeek-R1 model, a highly efficient and powerful LLM focused on logical inference, mathematical reasoning, and real-time problem-solving. DeepSeek-R1, along with other models like DeepSeek-V3, was developed at a fraction of the cost and computational resources required by leading U.S. and European AI firms. For example, DeepSeek-V3 was trained for about $5.58 million—far less than the reported $100 million cost for OpenAI’s GPT-4—and uses significantly fewer computing resources than comparable models like Meta’s Llama 3.1. DeepSeek’s models are notable for their open-source or “open weight” approach, meaning the company shares model parameters and methods publicly, though with some usage conditions that differ from typical open-source software. This transparency, combined with competitive performance, has positioned DeepSeek as a major disruptor in the AI industry, challenging established players like OpenAI, Google, and Meta. Key features of DeepSeek include: • Advanced Reasoning and Search: DeepSeek combines generative AI with sophisticated reasoning and real-time, multi-source search capabilities, providing contextually rich and transparent responses.• Open-Source Models: DeepSeek’s models, such as R1 and V3, are available for free use, research, and commercial applications under open-source licenses.• Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness: The company leverages algorithmic innovations (like mixture of experts and multi-head latent attention transformers) to achieve high performance with lower resource consumption.• Global Impact: DeepSeek’s rapid adoption and competitive capabilities have led to significant market reactions, including a notable drop in the stock prices of major U.S. tech companies.
  • DES is a widely-used method of data encryption using a private (secret) key. There are 72,000,000,000,000,000 (72 quadrillion) or more possible encryption keys that can be used. For each given message, the key is chosen at random from among this enormous number of keys. Like other private key cryptographic methods, both the sender and the receiver must know and use the same private key.
  • An attack that tries all of the phrases or words in a dictionary, trying to crack a password or key. A dictionary attack uses a predefined list of words compared to a brute force attack that tries all possible combinations.
  • Diffie-Hellman, often referred to as the Diffie-Hellman key exchange or DH, is a cryptographic protocol that enables two parties to securely establish a shared secret key over a public channel, even if they have no prior knowledge of each other. This shared key can then be used for symmetric encryption, allowing for secure communication between the parties. The core idea is that both participants—commonly called Alice and Bob—agree on two public values: a large prime number and a base (generator) . Each party then chooses a private, secret number (their private key), computes a corresponding public value, and exchanges these public values over the insecure channel. Using their own private key and the other party’s public value, both can independently compute the same shared secret, which is mathematically infeasible for an eavesdropper to determine, even if they see all the public information exchanged.
  • Digest Authentication allows a web client to compute MD5 hashes of the password to prove it has the password.
  • A digital certificate is an electronic document or file that proves the authenticity of a user, device, server, or website using cryptography and public key infrastructure (PKI). It acts like a digital ID card, binding a public key to the identity of its owner and allowing secure, trusted communication over networks such as the internet. Digital certificates verify the identity of the certificate holder (such as a website, user, or device) to others, ensuring that the entity is genuine and trustworthy. They enable secure, encrypted communication by providing a public key that can be used to encrypt data, which only the holder of the corresponding private key can decrypt. Certificates are digitally signed by a Certificate Authority (CA), a trusted third party that validates the information and vouches for the certificate’s authenticity.
  • Distribution as a Service (DaaS) in the context of cyberattacks refers to a model where cybercriminals outsource the distribution of malicious software or cyberattack tools to third-party providers. This approach enables attackers to focus on their core activities, such as developing malware or orchestrating campaigns, while leveraging specialized infrastructure and expertise for distributing their malicious payloads. How DaaS Facilitates Large-Scale Cyberattacks Lowered Barriers to Entry: DaaS makes sophisticated attack tools and services accessible to less-skilled individuals by providing ready-made solutions, such as malware, ransomware, phishing kits, and DDoS tools. This significantly broadens the pool of potential attackers and increases the volume of attacks. Scalability: Attackers can scale their operations easily, from targeting a few individuals to launching massive, coordinated campaigns against thousands or millions of victims. DaaS platforms often offer tiered pricing or subscription models, allowing attackers to adjust their reach based on their goals and budget. Anonymity: Many DaaS providers operate on the dark web, protecting both the service provider and the buyer from identification and law enforcement. This anonymity encourages more widespread use of these services. Comprehensive Offerings: DaaS providers may bundle various attack tools, such as: Ransomware-as-a-Service (RaaS): Ready-to-deploy ransomware packages with support and infrastructure. Malware-as-a-Service (MaaS): Modular malware platforms for customized attacks. DDoS-as-a-Service: Tools for launching distributed denial-of-service attacks. Phishing-as-a-Service (PhaaS): Pre-made phishing kits with templates and credential-capture tools. By outsourcing distribution to specialized providers, cybercriminals can execute large-scale, sophisticated attacks with minimal technical expertise or infrastructure investment. This model has contributed to the rapid growth and professionalization of the cybercrime ecosystem.